NIOS Class 12th Political Science (317) Notes (English Medium)| Question Answer |

Answer –

• Liberty can be defined as the freedom to do whatever one wants, or the positive power of doing and appreciating the value of one’s work
• In modern politics, liberty is understood as the state of being free within society from control or oppressive restrictions imposed by authority on one’s way of life, behavior, or political views.

Q 2. State the four elements of ‘State’.

Answer –Four elements of ‘State’:

• Population
• territory,
• government
• sovereignty are the four categories (or independence).

Q 3. Name the President of the Constituent Assembly and the chairman of the drafting committee of the Constitution of India.

Answer – President of the Constituent Assembly – Dr Rajendra Prasad

Chairman of the Drafting Committee – Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar

Q 4. State any two functions of Zila Parishad.

Answer-Zila Parishad- The Zila Parishad is an official body that coordinates the activities of the Panchayats in all its developmental activities, such as minor irrigation works, vocational and industrial schools, village industries, sanitation and public health among others.

 Functions of Zila Parishad

• It is responsible for giving proper advice to Gram Panchayats and Block Samitis & assist in their functioning.
• It acts as a connecting link between state government and bodies at the lower level.
• It overlooks the implementation of the Five-year plans.

Q 5. Explain the significance of Universal Adult Franchise.

Answer – Adult Franchise – Adult Franchise means all adult citizens of the country should have the right to vote without any discrimination of class, caste, class, religion, or gender. It is based on the basic principle of democracy, which we call equality.

The significance of Universal Adult Franchise

• India has adopted representative democracy, also known as indirect democracy.
• The Universal Adult Franchise principle is based on the right to equality, a fundamental principle of democracy.
• The minimum age to vote differs country-wise. In our country, it is 18 years now. The 61st amendment act of 1989 reduced the minimum age to exercise voting from 21 to 18.

Q 6. State any two sources of income of Municipal Corporations.

Answer – Two sources of income of Municipal Corporations:

(i) Entertainment tax collected from the cinema halls & cable, TV operators, toll tax for the use of roods & bridges on houses & land, called Property tax.Water tax on the water used by house holds

(ii) Municipalities also receive annual grants & part of the taxes from their respective state governments.

Q 7. Explain any two qualifications required for appointment as Governor.

Answer – The candidate to become a Governor of the state needs to meet two vital qualifications as mentioned in Article 157 and Article 158 and these are:

• The candidate must be an Indian citizen and reside in the country.
• The candidate must attain an age of minimum 35 years.

Q 8. Explain the meaning of ‘equality of opportunity’.

Answer – Equality of opportunity – Equality of opportunity means policies and practices, especially in employment, that prohibit discrimination based on race, color, age, sex, religion, mental or physical disability, or national origin, which means equal work for all.

There are different types concepts lumped under equality of opportunity, Formal equality of opportunity is the absence of direct (unfair) discrimination. Deliberate discrimination must be relevant and meritocratic.

Q 9. Examine any four reasons responsible for Communal violence in India.

Answer – Four reasons responsible for Communal violence in India:

Disruptive Effect of social media:

Social Media played a critical role in circulating fake news at break-neck speed, as the copious audio-visual documentation of violence, hate messages are delivered to the masses almost immediately.

Role of Mainstream Media:

Instead of adhering to media ethics and neutrality, most of the media houses show an inclination towards particular political ideology, which in turn widens the societal cleavage.

Lack of Value-Based Education:

People are not equipped to think for themselves and this leads them to blindly follow the ‘trends’ instead of being able to differentiate the good from the bad themselves.

 Majoritarian Hegemony and Minority Insecurities:

• A group in majority often believes that it has the sole say in the progress of the country. This leads to acts of violence when smaller groups oppose the majoritarian ideas of progress.
• On the contrary, minority groups often find themselves blamed for being ‘anti-national’ whenever they try to protect their way of life from transgression. This often creates violence in society.

Q 10. Suggest any four measures to correct or reduce regional imbalance in India.

Answer – Four measures to correct or reduce regional imbalance in India:

• Special grants are given to backward and tribal areas.
• Schools have been opened, providing, free and compulsory education to remove illiteracy.
• Hospitals and dispensaries have been set up to give medical care to the people.
• Water facilities have been provided for domestic purposes and agriculture.
• Cottage and small industries are being promoted to provide employment opportunities.

Q 11. Explain any four objectives of the United Nations.

Answer – The main objectives are:

• To maintain inter­national peace and security
• To encourage international cooperation in the spheres of social, economic and cultural developments
• To develop friendly relations among nations on principles of equal rights and self- determination
• To recognize the fundamental rights of all people

Q 12. Highlight any four guiding principles of the Panchsheel.

Answer – Panchsheel is an Agreement on Trade and Intercourse between the Tibet region of China and India. The agreement was signed on 29th April 1954 in Beijing by the Indian Ambassador N. Raghavan and Chang Han-fu, the Chinese Deputy Foreign Minister of China. All this agreement was done on the guidance of Shri Pandit Nehru. While signing a peace agreement with China Raghavan advocated adherence to five guiding principles known as Panchsheel.

The four guiding principles of the Panchsheel:

1. Mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty- Mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty”, is already mentioned in Article 10 of the League of Nation Covenant and in article 2 paragraph 1 of the Charter of the United Nations.
2. Non-aggression against each other- “Mutual non­-aggression”, was mentioned for the first time in the Briand­-Kellogg Treaty of August 27, 1928 and in Article 2 paragraph 4, of the UN Charter.
3. Non-interference in each other’s internal affairs- “Non­-interference in each other’s internal affairs”, is included in Article 15, paragraph 8of the League of Nations Covenant, and in article 2 paragraph 7 of the Charter.
4. Equality and mutual benefit- Mutual Benefit means equality and respect within the relationship between the partners and agreements in which both parties gain value. Mutual Benefit means equality and respect within the relationship between the Partners and Agreements that achieve win-win outcomes.
5. Peaceful co-existence- “Peaceful co­-existence”, is not new although the term itself, peaceful “co­-existence,” is new. The fact that 50 counties with different political regimes and traditions were cooperating within the United Nations proves that peaceful co­-existence has existed de facto within the UN system.

Q 13. Describe any four important functions of the Parliament.

Answer – Parliament is the supreme legislative body of India. The Indian Parliament comprises of the President and the two Houses – Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and Lok Sabha (House of the People).

Important functions of the Parliament:

1. Legislative Functions-

• The primary function of the Parliament is to make laws.
• It not only makes new laws but also reviews the existing laws and tries to make them better and more useful for the citizens.

2. Administrative Functions- The Parliament has significant control over the Executive and the Members of the Executive are accountable to the Parliament for their policies and decisions.
3. Financial Powers-

• The Parliament exercises total control over the financial matters of the country.
• It ensures that the government does not introduce or remove any tax without its approval.
• The Government can use money for public expenditure only after the approval from the Parliament.

4. Judicial Powers- The Parliament has the power to remove the President, the Judges of Supreme and High Courts and the Chief Election Commissioner from their office.
5. Power to amend the Constitution- The Parliament has the supreme authority to make changes to the Constitution of India.

Q 14. Explain any five differences between State and Government.

Answer – Some of the main differences between state and government are as follows:

 

 Q 15. Describe the major landmarks in the development of Human Rights.

Answer – There are the major landmarks in the development of Human Rights:

• 1215 Magna Carta
• 1776 American Declaration of Independence and Bill of Rights
• 1787 Constitution of the United States
• 1789 French Declaration of the Rights of man
• 1946 UN Commission on Human Rights

Q 16. Explain briefly the relations between India and Pakistan. 

Answer – Introduction

There are no two countries in the world have so much in common as India and Pakistan. Indo-Pak relations have been defined by the violent partition of British India in 1947, the Jammu & Kashmir conflict and the numerous military conflicts fought between the two nations.

➛ Indo-Pakistan War of 1947-48: Out of the four wars between Pakistan and India, the 1947-48 war was the primary war happened between the two nations. The war resulted from the conflict over Jammu and Kashmir.

➛ Indo-Pakistan War of 1965: Emboldened by India’s defeat in the 1962 Sino-Indian war, Nehru’s demise in 1964, India’s weak economic situation at the time, the perceived weakness of the Indian military but the Pakistani military brass and the qualitative superiority of Pakistan in military hardware and airpower.

➛ Indo-Pakistan War 1971: Post-independence, Pakistan was separated into two different territories, which were East Pakistan (present-day Bangladesh) and West Pakistan.

➛ Kargil Conflict of 1999: The Indian Army left the high peaks vacated in the Kargil Sector of Kashmir during the winters of 1998-99, like every year. But Pakistan Army exploited this opportunity and tried to move across the LOC and occupy the posts that were vacant. In Feb 1999, Atal Bihari Vajpayee, the Indian Prime Minister, visited Lahore, and India-Pak signed the Lahore declaration.

India Pakistan Relations: Latest Events

The latest events that further reduced the engagement between the two countries and impacted India Pakistan Relations are-

➛ Pulwama Attack: First, there was the February 2019 Pulwama attack, India’s Balakot response, and Pakistan’s counter-response.

➛ Article 370: After India abrogated Jammu & Kashmir’s special status on August 5, India and Pakistan have downgraded their diplomatic presence in each other’s countries. Both countries withdrew their high commissioners after the Article 370 issue.

➛ Trade Stopped Completely: Bilateral trade, which, though minuscule, had managed to survive earlier shocks to relations, has stopped entirely after the abrogation of Article 370.

Conclusion

India Pakistan relations have been and will continue to be tense, at least in the foreseeable future. These tensions can be resolved only at the bilateral level through negotiations and discussions once a conducive environment for talks is created.

 Q 17. Analyse the power of the Supreme Court as the protector of the Fundamental Rights. 

Answer – Introduction

Fundamental rights are the basic human rights enshrined in the Constitution of India which are guaranteed to all citizens. They are applied without discrimination on the basis of race, religion, gender, etc. Significantly, fundamental rights are enforceable by the courts, subject to certain conditions.

Judicial review is an examination by the courts in the cases of legislative status and executive and administrative acts to determine either they are prohibited by a written constitution or it is deemed to be in conflict with the basic law of constitution.

The Supreme Court acts as the guardian and finds interpreter of the constitution:

➛ For the enforcement of the Fundamental Rights of an aggrieved citizen, the right to remedies is conferred under Article 32. Therefore, the right to get Fundamental Rights protected is in itself a fundamental right. This makes the Fundamental Rights real. The Supreme Court has made Article 32 a basic feature of the Constitution i.e., these rights cannot be taken away even by way of an amendment to the Constitution.

➛ An aggrieved party, in case of violation of the Fundamental Rights, has the option of moving either the high court or the Supreme Court directly. However, the ruling of the Supreme Court states that wherever relief through the high court is available under Article 226, the aggrieved party should first move the high court.

➛ The Supreme Court and the high court both can issue writs in case of the violation of fundamental rights of an aggrieved party. These writs include habeas corpus, certiorari, prohibition, quo-warranto, and mandamus. However, the writ jurisdiction of the Supreme Courtdiffers from that of the high court in three respects. The writ jurisdiction (power to issue writs) of the Supreme Court is narrower than that of the high court. Whereas the territorial jurisdiction of the Supreme Court is wider than that of the high court.

Conclusion

the Supreme Court cannot refuse to exercise its writ jurisdiction and on the other hand, a high court can refuse to exercise its writ jurisdiction. Thus, the Supreme Court is constituted as the main defender and guarantor of the Fundamental Rights.

Q 18. State the five guiding principles of ‘Panchsheel’.

Answer – Introduction

China and India are two of the world’s oldest civilizations. They’re also two of the most populous nations in the world and contribute more to the global economy than nearly anyone else. As a result, it’s probably not too surprising to learn that China and India interact quite a bit. While the interactions of many nations are governed by various treaties, the one that defines the relationship between China and India is unique. It’s called the Panchsheel treaty, but you may also hear it referred to by its other name: the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence. The Panchsheel treaty represents a significant relationship between two of the world’s strongest nations, and is, therefore, one of the most important pieces of foreign policy in the modern world.

The main goal of Panchsheel was to govern the relations between states. The first formal codification of the Panchsheel treaty was in an agreement made between China and India in 1954, known as the “Agreement on trade and intercourse between Tibet Region of China and India”. It was signed at Peking on 29th April 1954.

Five guiding principles of ‘Panchsheel’

➛ Mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty

➛ Mutual non-aggression

➛ Mutual non-interference in each other’s internal affairs

➛ Equality and mutual benefit

➛ Peaceful coexistence

Conclusion

The Panchsheel Agreement was an important document in India’s history. It set the groundwork for future relations between India and China.

Q 19. Analyse the role of caste in politics.

Answer – The role of caste in the Indian political system can be specifically discussed as under:

➛ Caste Factor in Political Socialisation and Leadership Recruitment:

Different caste groups have their loyalties behind different political parties and their ideologies. Right from his birth, an Indian citizen inherits a caste and grows up as a member of a particular caste group.

➛ Caste and Party Politics:

Caste factor is a constituent of the Indian party system. Some political parties have a direct caste basis while others indirectly bank upon particular caste groups. In particular, the regional political parties stand predominantly influenced by the caste factor. The DMK and AIADMK are non-Brahmin rather anti-Brahmin political parties of Tamil Nadu. In Punjab, Akali Dal has a community panthic identity but stands influenced by the issue of Jats vs. non-Jats. All political parties in India use caste as a means for securing votes in elections.

➛ Caste and Elections:

The caste factor is an important factor of electoral politics in India. All political parties give great weightage to the caste factor in selecting their candidates, in allocating constituencies to their candidates and in canvassing support for their nominees in the election.

➛ Caste as a Divisive and Cohesive Factor of Indian Politics:

Caste acts both as a divisive and cohesive force in Indian politics. It provides a basis for the emergence of several interest groups in the Indian system each of which competes with every other group in the struggle for power. At times it leads to unhealthy struggle for power and acts as a divisive force

Conclusion

Caste is very deep rooted in Indian social structure and played a major rolein politics. From party formation to decision making, it becomes very important. After the introduction of Adult Franchise,every vote becomes very important and each party tried to influence more and more voters. Now a day’s caste becomemore important for politics and politics also becomes more important for caste.

Q 20. Explain any five assumptions on which Marxism is based.

Answer – Introduction

Marxism is the political philosophy of the working class as liberalism is the political philosophy of the capitalist class. The social changes take place because of the material factors and through a method called ‘dialectical materialistic’ method. Dialectical materialism is the sum-total of the general principles which explain as to why and how social changes take place. The social changes take place because of the material factors and through the dialectical materialistic method.

 Marxism is based on certain assumptions These are:

➛ Nothing happens in the world on its own; there is always a cause-effect relationship in what we see around. The relations of production as the basis of society, provide the cause while the productive force constitutes the effect.

➛ The real development is always material development The progressive development of productive forces indicates the progressive level of development.

➛ The material factor is the dominant factor in both individual life and social life.

➛ Human being is born at a particular stage of social/material development, i.e., born in a social setting which exists independent of him. But being an active being, human being makes his own social setting. Marx had said, human beings are born in history, but they make history.

➛ Social classes, especially the opposing classes, through their struggle and following the process of revolution, move in the forward direction. That is why the Marxists say that every subsequent society is better than the preceding society.

➛ Revolutions mean total and wholesome changes; they are not a negative force but are what Marx had called, the locomotives of history. When launched and successful, revolutions take society to a higher stage of development.

Conclusion

Karl Marx believed that the capitalist system is inherently self-destructive. This is because the alienation and exploitation of the worker under a capitalist society would inevitably drive the working class to rebel against the owners and seize control of the means of production.

 Q 21. Describe the process of conducting elections in India.

Answer – Introduction

India is a constitutional democracy, which is having a parliamentary system of government. Every adult citizen of India can vote only in their constituency.These elections deal with the elections relating to all state assemblies, union territories, president and as well as vice president elections.

➛ The age limit to contest in the parliament election and various state assemblies

The constitution has prescribed the maximum age limit to contest in Lok Sabha elections is 25 years and the Rajya Sabha elections is 30 years. In various assemblies, the maximum age limit for the legislative assembly is 25 years and legislative council is 30 years.

➛ Issuing of voting identity card to all citizens of India

In 1993, for the first time, the Election Commission of India had arranged of issuing the identity card to all the citizens to arrange the efficient and corrupt election system in India. To avoid the duplicate voting and to prevent the booth capturing system, the strict vigilance is also arranged. Now the electronic voting machines are also introduced to check the mal practice in election system

➛ Appointment of election observers

The election observers are appointed by election commission to check the expenditure made by each candidate at the time of election. By using this measure, the election commission tries to control the expenditure of election and also tries to prevent the distribution of money to illiterate voters to purchase the votes.

➛ The Petitions

Candidate can file an election petition if he or she thinks there has been malpractice during the election. An election petition is not an ordinary civil suit, but treated as a contest in which the whole constituency is involved. Election petitions are tried by the High Court of the State involved, and if upheld can even lead to the restaging of the election in that constituency. It is made to provide the justice to every candidate who thinks that he can get better justice through the judicial system.

➛ Declaration of Votes and Declaration of Winner

Under the supervision of retuning officers, the counting is held and the name of candidate is declared, who is gaining the highest number of votes, and also the name of the winner is declared. The certificate of winning is distributed to the winner candidate from the election commission.

Conclusion

The Election System in India, is the statutory commission established, under the constitution, is making improvements, from time to time, to and is also famous for its efficient administration. India is also having the biggest election system. The Election system in India is a biggest task which is conducting for every five years and is smooth functioning process due to the effort of election commission of India.

Q 22. Explain any five features of Human Rights.

Answer – Introduction

Human rights are the basic rights and freedoms that belong to every person in the world, from birth until death. They apply regardless of where you are from, what you believe or how you choose to live your life. They can never be taken away, although they can sometimes be restricted These basic rights are based on shared values like dignity, fairness, equality, respect and independence. These values are defined and protected by law.

Five features of Human Rights

➛ Interdependent

Every human right is interconnected with one another, a right cannot be accomplished without the support of another, therefore, human rights are interdependent and are meant to work that way.

➛ Universal

Human rights are basically national rights, that is inherited by a person by the very stage of her or his birth. Human rights are universal, it does not look into where an individual belongs in the society or region, it is given to every individual.

➛ Fundamental

Human rights are fundamental, they are structured and modified to blend with the cycle of life to create peace and harmony in the society, if it is not fundamental, life as a human would be a chaotic mess.

➛ Inherent

Human rights are inherent, no one can change or buy these rights, it is a common experience for every human being in society.

➛ Inalienable

No authority, or a community or an individual have the right to take away the rights of another individual, it is a universal intake and equal to everyone.

Conclusion

Human rights lay down the basis for fundamental rights which are guaranteed to the citizens of every country. These are the basic rights a person has from his birth till his death and are indivisible, universal and interdependent rights.

Q 23. Explain any five features of Gandhism.

Answer – Gandhism: Gandhism is a body of ideas that describes the inspiration, vision, and the life work of M.K. Gandhi. It is particularly associated with his contributions to the idea of nonviolent resistance, sometimes also called civil resistance.

The five features of Gandhism are:

➛ Truth: Truth is the most cardinal principle of Gandhism. Mahatma Gandhi was a worshipper of truth. He believed that there is no good higher than truth. “Truth is God and God is Truth.” He searched for truth throughout his life. He named his auto-biography, ‘My Experiments with Truth’. He achieved many successes by following the path of truth. He did not give up the path of truth even in times of failures.

➛ Non-violence: Mahatma Gandhi expressed full faith in non-violence. Infact, non-violence and truth were to him two sides of the same coin. A seeker of truth always follows the path of non-violence. Non-violence means not to harm any person, not even to one’s opponent in any way. Gandhiji was against the propagation of violence in one’s thought, words, actions and deeds.

According to Gandhiji non-violence is of three types:

• Non-violence of the Brave
• Non-violence based on Expediency
• Non-violence of the Coward

3. Satyagraha: Mahatma Gandhism advocates dependence upon Satyagraha as the means to resist evil. It is a moral weapon which is based on soul force and not physical force. Satyagraha means, ‘Clinging to the Truth’. “Satyagraha is the vindication of truth, not by infliction of suffering on the opponent but on one’- own self. Satyagraha is nothing but Tapasya for truth.’ Satyagraha is a moral weapon with which one can successful meet the challenge evil, injustice, exploitation and untruthfulness.
4. Satyagrah and Non-Cooperation: Gandhiji was of the opinion that oppression and exploitation were possible only through co-operation given by those who were being oppressed. When the people decide to refuse to co-operate with an unjust Government the unjust system sooner or later, comes to an end. Non-violent non-cooperation can even bend the absolute power of a despot.
5. Relationship between Religion and Politics: Gandhian Philosophy advocates the view than religion and politics are not entirely separate things. The relationship between the two is like the relationship between body and soul. Gandhiji entered politics for the sake of religion. He spiritualised politics. He held that the people who say that there is no relationship between religion and politics do not know the meaning of religion. For him there could be no politics devoid of religion.

Q 24. Explain any five differences between State and Government.

Answer- State: A state is a community formed by people and exercising permanent power within a specified territory.

Government: Government can be defined as a group of people who are responsible for governing a political unit like a kingdom, state, or a country. Government is the power to rule a particular state, or a country based on certain administrative laws.

 The five differences between State and Government:

➛ Government is only an element of the state:

A State has four essential elements—Population, Territory, Government and Sovereignty. Government is only one element of the State. It is just one part of the State which acts for the state.

➛ Government is an Agency or Agent of the State:

Government is an agency of the State. It acts for the state. It is that agency of the State which formulates the will of the state into laws, implements the laws of the state and ensures conformity to the laws of the state. Government exercises power and authority on behalf of the state.

➛ State is Abstract, Government is Concrete:

State is a concept, an idea or a name used to denote a community of persons living on a definite territory and organised for the exercise of sovereignty. State cannot be seen. Government is made by the people of the State. It is formed by the representatives of the people. It has a definite and defined organisation and form. It can be seen as a team of people exercising the power of the State.

➛ Government is organised only by a portion of the population of State:

The whole population is a part of the State. All the people are citizens of the State. However, government is made by the representatives of the people. Only some people, who get elected act as representatives of the people, form the government of the State. Their number is limited to few hundred only.

➛ Membership of a State is compulsory but not of Government:

All people are citizens of the State. They together constitute the population of the State. Each one normally gets the membership (citizenship) of a state automatically right at the time of one’s birth and continues to live life as such. However, membership of the government is not automatic. No one can be forced to become its part. Anyone can voluntarily seek an election, get elected as a representative of the people and become a part of the government. Only some persons form the government.

Q 25. Highlight any five effects of National Emergency.

Answer- National Emergency: Article 356 gives wide powers to the Union government to assert its authority over a state if civil unrest occurs and the state government does not have the means to end it. It’s called “National Emergency”.

The five effects of National Emergency

1. The most significant effect is that the federal form of the Constitution changes into unitary. The authority of the Centre increases and the Parliament assumes the power to make laws for the entire country or any part thereof, even in respect of subjects mentioned in the State List.
2. The President of India can issue directions to the states as to the manner in which the executive power of the states is to be exercised.
3. During this period, the Lok Sabha can extend its tenure by a period of one year at a time. But the same cannot be extended beyond six months after the proclamation ceases to operate. The tenure of State Assemblies can also be extended in the same manner.
4. During emergency, the President is empowered to modify the provisions regarding distribution of revenues between the Union and the States.
5. The Fundamental Rights under Article 19 about which you have already learnt are automatically suspended and this suspension continues till the end of the emergency. But according to the 44thAmendment, Freedoms listed in Article 19 can be suspended only in case of proclamation on the ground of war or external aggression.

Q 26. Analyse the policy of ‘non-alignment as an important feature of India’s foreign policy.

Answer – Introduction

Meaning of ‘Non-alignment – For India, the concept of non-alignment began as a policy of non-participation in the military affairs of a bipolar world and in the context of colonialism aimed towards optimum involvement through multi-polar participation towards peace and security.

The foreign policy of non-alignment by Nehru was dependent on the time-tested values of Indian society such as the settlement of disputes in a peaceful manner, peace, being neighbours who are good and oppose aggression, domination, violence, expansionism, power politics as well as violence. Thus, this was just to get an idea about the Indian foreign policies on non-alignment. As we move forward, we shall focus on topics such as a change in India’s foreign policy of non-alignment, the relevance of non-alignment in India’s foreign policy and other significant topics.

India’s Foreign Policy

It can be common for each sovereign to have a foreign policy similarly India also has its own foreign policy. Foreign policy can be described as the overall interests, values and goals that a country might promote whilst interacting with different countries. We shall focus on some basic aspects of Indian foreign policy non-alignment. Firstly, it can be noted that non-alignment can be mentioned as one of the most significant features of India’s foreign policy.

The goal of non-alignment can be that of maintaining National Independence in affairs related to foreign through the means of not being a part of any military alliance that is developed by the Soviet Union and the USA in the second world war’s aftermath.

Now, to understand the change in India’s foreign policy of non-alignment one can try focusing on the phases of non-alignment. It can be observed that beginning from the year 1947 till now there have been three different phases in India’s foreign policy. The year 1947 till somewhere around the year 1962 can be called the initial phase which constituted the most idealistic phase underneath Jawaharlal Nehru. As we move forward, the second phase of India’s policy of non-alignment can be said to begin along with the defeat in the Sino-Indian border war in 1962. The era that was posted by Nehru may be described as ‘modified structuralism’. Further, going ahead towards the third phase it can be said it mainly begins as the third world war ended. However, it can be mentioned that a more pragmatic foreign policy which was based on the values of Realism and got adapted later. Thus, with this one can gain an idea about the phases of India’s foreign policy of non-alignment.

To understand the relevance of non-alignment in India’s foreign policy it can be said that with excessive forethought the policy of non-alignment was conceptualised by Nehru along with the formalization and operationalization of the policy. The meaning of non-alignment can be explained as keeping out of power blocks or cold wars. However, when we speak of Nehru’s meaning for this term it goes beyond these words. It can be described as neither isolationism nor neutralisation instead assertion of India’s independence of outlook.

Conclusion

It can be concluded from the above discussion that the concept regarding the basic aspects of Indian foreign policy non-alignment, the change in India’s foreign policy of non-alignment and the relevance of non-alignment in India’s foreign policy have been described. Non-alignment can be explained as one of the most significant characteristics of India’s foreign policy. It can be concluded that through the above sections one can gain an insight into the basic aspects of Indian foreign policy non-alignment, the change in India’s foreign policy of non-alignment and the relevance of non-alignment in India’s foreign policy.

Q 27. Analyse the theory of class struggle as a feature of Marxism.

Answer – Introduction

Karl Marx recognized class (a group of people.) as a unique feature of capitalist societies. In Capital (1894), under the title of ‘Social Classes’ Marx distinguished three classes, related to the three sources of income:

• owners of simple labor power or laborers whose main source of income is labor;
• owners of capital or capitalists whose main source of income is profit or surplus value; and
• landowners whose main source of income is ground rent.

In this way the class structure of modern capitalist society is composed of three major classes viz., salaried laborers or workers, capitalists and landowners. At a broader level, society could be divided into two major classes i.e., the ‘haves’ (owners of land and / or capital) often called as bourgeoisie and the ‘have-nots’ (those who own nothing but their own labor power), often called as proletariat.

 Conclusion

Karl Marx believed that capitalism would be overthrown, and socialism would prevail. Socialism is when the working class would take control of power in their hands, which would result in income equality and a just society. He wanted the oppression of the working class to end. However, his vision never came to life. Today, classes widely exist, even in countries that follow socialism. The capital class has control over profits, and the working class gets wages for their hard work and labour.

Q 28. Suggest any two measures and methods to reduce tension between India and Pakistan.

Answer – Measures and methods to reduce tension between India and Pakistan.

Bilateral agreements

• Agreements of trade and defence helps in avoiding disputes and building trust.

Negotiation

• Dialogues regarding issues is the best way to prevent rivalry between the countries.
• Regular meetings both political and non-political between the youth of both the countries.

Exchange of ideas and culture

• Increasing connections between citizens through media can increase the empathy of the governments.
• All the media houses should be closed which provoke people on both sides. Rather media should play a bridging role between the two.
• Individuals and politicians on both sides should stop giving provoking statements.

 Q 29. Analyse the role of ‘caste’ in Indian society.

Answer – Introduction

The caste system provides a hierarchy of social roles that hold inherent characteristics and, more importantly, remain stable throughout life. An implicit status is attached to one’s caste which historically changed from the social roles to hereditary roles.

Role of Caste in Indian Society

India’s social structure is best understood in terms of caste system wherein the cast is hierarchically arranged.

• Caste as group identity has got strengthened in the new context of modern ideas and institutions.
• Caste is a localized group having a traditional association with an occupation.

Cast in Politics

• In politicizing the castes, the caste associations played a crucial role. India’s caste system has been influential. One’s caste can control access to political power, land, and police or judicial assistance. Castes also tend to influence local politics by being local to certain areas. Political parties in everywhere tend to represent the interests of specific castes.
• Caste associations were quasivoluntary associations in the sense that its membership was open only to the individuals of the caste community.
• The influence of caste varies depending upon the level of election and the region.

Q 30. Explain any five differences between ‘Nation ́ and ‘Nationality’.

Answer – Differences between ‘Nation ́ and ‘Nationality’

Q 31. Examine any five features of liberalism.

Answer – Features of Liberalism

• Liberalism is a social, moral, and political philosophy that places the individual at the heart of society. Individualism and liberty are the two critical ideas of Liberalism as a political and moral philosophy. Liberals argue that the most meaningful social order is where the individual is free.
• Individualism is the central concept of liberalism. It holds that individual rights shall take precedence over all other principles and beliefs.
• Individuals are equal, intelligent, moral, and autonomous, capable of establishing their sense of what is good, according to liberals.
• According to Immanuel Kant, individuals are “ends in themselves, not merely means to another’s will.”
• Liberalism rejects unfettered and arbitrary power. God’s divine might, charisma, or historical needs do not provide authority. The goal of authority is to assist the political entity in achieving its objectives.

Q 32. What do Directive Principles of State Policy mean? The Constitution of which country inspired to include DPSP into our Constitution and why?

Answer –Meaning – the directive principles ensure that the State shall strive to promote the welfare of the people by securing a social order in which social, economic and political justice is animated/informed in all institutions of life as per Article 38 (1).

The principles have been inspired by the Directive Principles given in the Constitution of Ireland which are related to social justice, economic welfare, foreign policy, and legal and administrative matters.

these are included in constitution Because, Directive Principles of State Policy aim to create social and economic conditions under which the citizens can lead a good life. They also aim to establish social and economic democracy through a welfare state.

Q 33. Explain any two disarmament activities of the United Nations with examples.

Answer –

1. Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty

The United Nations has taken active interest in disarmament. Several disarmament treaties resulted from UN efforts.

For example, Treaty on the Non-proliferation (NPT) of nuclear weapons of 1968. This treaty required non-nuclear states not to acquire nuclear weapons, while leaving the nuclear weapon powers free to increase their stocks. Many countries like India refused to sign the treaty to protest against the discrimination.

The UN General Assembly convened three special sessions to focus world attention on the need for disarmament. Those sessions, mobilised world opinion to press reduction of nuclear and conventional weapons. But no concrete results were evident, because of cold war tensions.

The ending of the Cold War raised hopes of serious moves to control and reduce nuclear and other weapons of mass destructions.

2. Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT)

The General Assembly adopted a text of resolution of the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) in September 1996. The chances of CTBT coming into force are considered remote because many countries, including India, described it a defective treaty and refused to sign it until the five nuclear powers had disarmed.

UN efforts in disarmament led to banning of landmines (1997) and prohibition and destruction of existing stocks of chemical weapons under international supervision (1993). UN also made progress in actually removing several lakhs of landmines in Asia and Africa, supervising elimination of existing stocks of chemical weapons. Also, UN played its part in destruction of chemical and biological weapons of Iraq in 1990s.

Q 34. Justify the policy of reservation in India as an instance of protective discrimination.

Answer –

• This statement is completely true.
• Because our country’s 20% population is considered as the backward castes according to the government survey.
• Many opportunities and extra benefits are given to this backward caste in our country by the government.
• Reserved seats are one of those benefits which are given by the government.
• This reservation system is totally instance of protective discrimination.
• Because it violates the democratic equality and gives extra benefits to the backward classes.

Q 35. Bring out any five similarities between Vidhan Sabha and Vidhan Parishad. 

Answer – Five difference between Vidhan Sabha and Vidhan Parishad

Conclusion

The key difference between Vidhan Sabha and Vidhan Parishad can be understood in terms of election procedure, number of members, functioning, etc. Vidhan Sabha, or the Legislative assembly, is the lower house, while the Vidhan Parishad or the Legislative council, is the upper house of the state legislature.

Q 36. Describe any eight powers and functions of the Prime Minister of India.

Answer – Introduction

The prime minister selects and may dismiss other members of the cabinet, and allocates posts to members within the government. In most systems, the prime minister is the presiding member and chairman of the cabinet.

➛Prime Minister- A prime minister, premier or chief of cabinet is the head of the cabinet and the leader of the ministers in the executive branch of government, often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system. Narendra Modi is the current Prime Minister of India.

The Prime Minister’s Powers and Functions:

In relation to the Ministerial Council

• They make recommendations to the President for ministerial appointments. The President can only appoint ministers who the Prime Minister has proposed.
• They assign and reassign certain portfolios to ministers.
• In a disagreement, they might ask a minister to resign or suggest the President fire him.
• The council of ministers’ meeting is presided over by this individual, and their decisions are affected by their decision.
• They preside over the council of ministers and affect its decisions.
• They direct, direct, manage and organise the work of all ministries.
• The Prime Minister is the Head of the Council of Ministers.

In Relation to the President

They are the primary point of contact between the President and the Council of Ministers. It is the prime minister’s responsibility to:

• All decisions of the council of ministers relevant to the management and legislative initiatives of the Union should be transmitted to the President.
• To provide such information about the administration of the Union’s affairs and legislative ideas as the President may request.
• If the President so directs, present to the council of ministers any topic on which a minister has made a decision but has not been reviewed by the council.

Regarding the Parliament

• The Prime Minister is the Lower House’s leader.
• He counsels the President on the convening and adjourning of Parliamentary sessions.
• At any time, he can recommend the dissolution of the Lok Sabha to the President.
• He announces government initiatives on the House floor.

Other Powers and Functions are:

1. They are the heads of the NITI Ayog (which succeeded the Planning Commission), the National Integration Council, the Interstate Council, the National Water Resources Council, and a number of other organisations.
2. They have a massive impact on the country’s foreign policy.
3. He is the Union government’s leading spokesman.
4. During a crisis, he is the political crisis manager.
5. As the nation’s leader, he meets with diverse groups of people in various states and gets memos about their issues, among other things.

Conclusion

As a result, the Prime Minister plays an essential and critical function in the country’s politico-administrative structure. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar stated, ‘If any official under our constitution is likened to the US president, it would be the Prime Minister, not the Union’s leader. The Prime Minister is the Head of the Council of Ministers.

Q 37. Describe any four privileges and immunities enjoyed by the President of India.

Answer – Introduction

The Indian President is the supreme of state and is also entitled to be the first citizen of the country. Ram Nath Kovind is the current and 14th president of India. The prime responsibility of the President is to defend, protect, as well as preserve the law and constitution of India.

Four privileges enjoyed by the President of India-

1. Executive Powers

• Head of the Union Administration: All executive orders are issued in the name of the President.
• Appointments of officials of the State: The President makes appointments to the key posts to run the government’s administration.

2. Legislative Powers

The president summons both the houses (Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha) of the parliament and prorogues them. They can dissolve the Lok Sabha. The president inaugurates parliament by addressing it after the general elections and also at the beginning of the first session every year per Article 87(1).

3. Financial Powers

A financial bill can be introduced in the parliament only with the president’s recommendation. The president lays the Annual Financial Statement, i.e., the Union budget, before the parliament. The president can take advances out of the Contingency Fund of India to meet unforeseen expenses.

4. Judicial Powers

The primary duty of the president is to preserve, protect and defend the constitution and the law of India per Article 60. The president appoints the Chief Justice of India and other judges on the advice of the chief justice.

Immunities of President

Article 361 of the Constitution of India grants the protection or immunity to the Indian President as well as the Indian Governor. The Indian President is the supreme of the state and cannot be arrested. The Indian President has different roles in protecting the Constitution of India and Law as managing smooth and efficient functioning of governments, and approving bills. The Indian President is not answerable to any court of law for the activities of the duties and powers of his office. In the absence of immunities, it can be difficult for the President in managing his responsibilities.  During the term of office, the President of India is effectively immune from criminal proceedings and cannot be arrested or not answerable to any court of law.

Conclusion

It can be concluded that the Prime Minister in India plays a critical role in running the activities of the government smoothly.  The article has discussed the responsibilities of the President, his powers and privileges as well as the immunities of the president. There are different kinds of powers of the Indian Prime Minister such as judicial power, Legislative power, executive power as well as emergency power.  There is a requirement for almost two months for a civil case on the activities of the President.  

Q 38. How is the President of India elected and by whom? Explain.

Answer – Introduction

The president’s office was created after India developed into a republic on 26 January 1950, when its constitution was implemented. The president is elected indirectly via an electoral college encompassing both houses of the Parliament of India and the legislative assemblies of every Indian state and territory, who are all directly elected.

Ram Nath Kovind has been serving as the 14th and existing president, taking office since 25 July 2017.

Election process of President of India

The President is elected by the members of an electoral college consisting of the elected members of both the Houses of Parliament and the elected members of the Legislative Assemblies of States and the Union Territories of Delhi and Pondicherry.

• Article 58 of the constitution lays down the principal qualifications that one must oblige to be qualified to the president’s office. A president should be:
• a citizen of Indian Nationality
• of 35 years of age or beyond
• eligible to be a member of the Lok Sabha

A person shall not be qualified for election as president if he enjoys any office of profit in the Government of India or the Government of any Indian State or any local or other authority subject to any of the said governments’ regulation.

• Few definite office-holders, nevertheless, are permitted to contest as presidential candidates. These are:
• The existing vice-president
• The governor of any Indian state
• A Minister of the Union or any Indian state (comprising prime minister and chief ministers)
• Conditions for the Presidency
• The president should not be a member of either house of the parliament or a house of the legislature of any state. If a member of either house of the parliament or a house of the legislature of any state is elected president, he should be considered to have quit his seat in that house on the date on which he starts his office as president.
• The president should not enjoy any other office of profit.
• The emoluments and grants of the president shall not be lessened throughout his term of office.
• Election procedure

1. When the office becomes unoccupied, the new president is elected via an electoral college comprising of the chosen members of both houses of parliament (M.P.s), the chosen members of the State Legislative Assemblies (Vidhan Sabha) of all Indian States and the chosen members.
2. The elect President’s procedure is a more comprehensive procedure than the prime minister’s, who is also voted indirectly (not chosen by people directly) by the Lok Sabha members simply. While the President being the constitutional head with duties to defend, protect and safeguard the constitution and the rule of law in a legal democracy with constitutional pre-eminence, is chosen in a comprehensive method by the members of Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha, and Indian state legislative.
3. The selection of a candidate for the election of the President should be pledged by no less than 50 electors as proposers plus 50 electors as seconders. In addition, every candidate has to formulate a security deposit of ₹15,000 (US$200) in the Reserve Bank of India. The security deposit is likely to be forfeited if the candidate fails to attain one-sixth of the votes polled.
4. The election is contested in agreement with the scheme of proportional representation through the instant-runoff voting scheme. The voting occurs via a secret ballot system. The mode of election of the President is granted by Article 55 of the constitution.
5. Each elector casts a dissimilar number of votes. However, the common standard is that the total number of votes given by Members of parliament equals the entire number of votes cast by State Legislators. Moreover, legislators from larger states give more votes than those from smaller states. Lastly, the number of legislators in state influences.
6. Though Indian presidential elections engage definite voting by MPs and MLAs, they are inclined to vote for the candidate sustained by their relevant parties.

Conclusion

In India, the government pursues the cabinet system. Therefore, a bright leader is significant to directing and running the country. However, if Presidents were to be chosen directly, it would become very complex. It would, in reality, be a failure because the public doesn’t have the utter precision of how the president-ship runs or if the candidate suits the sketch of a president.

Q 39. Analyse the relations between India and the United States.

Answer – Introduction

The United States-India strategic partnership is founded on shared values including a commitment to democracy and upholding the rules-based international system. The United States and India have shared interests in promoting global security, stability, and economic prosperity through trade, investment, and connectivity.

The relations between India and the United States

• During the Cold War times, India’s closest fellowship was with the Soviet Union.
• After the collapse of the Soviet Union, India suddenly planted itself friendless in a decreasingly hostile transnational terrain.
• Still, during these times, India liberalized its frugality and integrated with the global economy.
• This policy and India’s emotional profitable growth rates in recent times have made the country a profitable mate for a number of countries, including the US global hegemony.
• In recent times, two new factors have surfaced in Indo-US relations. These factors relate to the technological dimension and the part of the Indian-American diaspora.
• These two factors are interrelated. Consider the following data.
• India’s total exports in the software sector, the US, absorbs about 65 percent of it.
• Thirty-five per cent of the specialized staff of Boeing is estimated to be of Indian origin.
• 300,000 Indians work in Silicon Valley.
• Fifteen per cent of all high-tech launch-ups are by the Indian-American diaspora.

Debate on direction of Indo-US relations in the phase of US global ascendance:

• Under this view, transnational politics is seen through the prism of military power. A specific section believes that India should maintain its aloofness from the US and concentrate on adding its own comprehensive public power
• Another view holds the confluence of Indo-US interests as an occasion. It advocates a strategy that would allow India to take advantage of US ascendance and the collective conjunctions to establish the stylish possible options for itself
• Opposing the US, it argues, is a futile strategy that will only hurt India in the long run
• A third view advocates that India should take the lead in establishing a coalition of countries from the developing world. Over time, this coalition would become more critical and may succeed in bringing the hegemony down from its dominating ways
• Still, India-US relations are too complex to be managed by a single strategy. India needs to develop an applicable blend of foreign policy strategies to deal with the US

A Literal Perspective about Hegemony and Balance of Power in World Politics:

• As opposed to ascendance, the sense of balance of power presupposes that in the absence of world government, every state must ensure its own security and, in extreme circumstances, its own survival.
• Therefore, countries are acutely apprehensive of power distribution in the international political system and would not typically allow a single state to become so important as to pose serious trouble to other countries.
• This balance of power and sense of transnational politics, as outlined over, is supported by history.
• By convention, 1648 is regarded as the time in which the autonomous territorial state surfaced as the star actor in world politics.
• In the over three and a half centuries since also, there have been only two former occasions when a single state succeeded in gaining transcendence in the system to an analogous degree as the US predominates the system moment.
• France from 1660 to 1713 in the environment of European international politics.
• Britain with its global maritime conglomerate from 1860 to 1910.
• However, history also tells us that although at its height, hegemony seems formidable, it does not last forever. On the contrary, the balance of power politics over time reduces the relative power of the hegemony.
• In 1860, the high noon of the Puritanical period, Pax Britannica looked secure. By 1910, it was clear that Germany, Japan and the US had surfaced as contenders to British power.
• Therefore, twenty times from now, another great power, or maybe a coalition of great powers, could well crop just as US capabilities are declining in relative terms.

Conclusion

India and the US share relations that can be traced back to the independence of the Indian subcontinent. As a result of liberalisation in India, other countries such as the US saw opportunities in the increasing growth rate of the country. This caused India to join forces with many nations, including the US. Some believe this friendship benefits the US more than it does India. The nations share the same views on counter-terrorism. Indians account for about 1% of the total population of the US. Both countries announced in 2016 their plan to become Travel and Tourism Partner Countries in 2017.

Q 40. Explain any four factors responsible for cordial relations between India and the Soviet Union.

Answer – Introduction

During the Cold War, India and the Soviet Union (USSR) formed a strong and strategic relationship this diplomatic unity was further strengthened with both nations’ shared military ideals, as well as their overall economic policies.

Factors responsible for cordial relations between India and the Soviet Union

The relationship between India and the USSR/Soviet Unionwas based on a number of common factors. India having won freedom from the British, the anti-imperialism ideology of the Soviet Union compared well with each other. That is why, in India, there was skepticism and often rejection of Western-inspired fears about Soviet designs and objectives.

The political relationshipstarted dramatically improving after Soviet Communist Party’s leader’s visit to India in 1955. In the Security Council the Soviet Union supported India’s position on Kashmir and vetoed unacceptable resolution moved by the Western countries. Highly significant was Soviet aid in developing a heavy industrial complex in India. During the late 1950s, the Soviet Union gave growing financial and technical assistance to India for the development of India’s basic industries in steel, coal, machine-tool manufacturing, and other public sector areas. One of the landmark agreements that India signed with the Soviet Union was in February 1955 for the setting up of a steel plant in Bhilai.

The terms of Soviet aid were favourable to India: when the western countries were charging 6 per cent as rate of interest, the Soviet Union charged only 2.5 per cent. In December 1953, India and the Soviet Union signed a long-term trade agreement. An attractive feature of this agreement was the fact that payment for Indian imports could be made in rupees and not in hard currency like dollar. Trade with the Western countries, by contrast, was in hard currency. For this purpose, accounts of the Soviet Union were opened and maintained in several Indian banks.

Military supplies to India emerged as a prominent symbol of Indo-Soviet friendship. In 1962, just before the India-China war, the MiG (the fighter aircraft) deal was signed despite Chinese protest. The USSR replaced the British as the biggest supplier of fighter aircraft.

The Soviet Union hosted a meeting of leaders of India and Pakistan in Tashkant in January 1966 after the 1965 war. In August 1971, the Soviet and the Indian leaders signed the historic Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation, the first of its kind that India had signed. The Treaty provided for immediate mutual consultations in case either country was attacked from outside. This clearly signalled Moscow’s commitment to stand by India on the Bangladesh question.

India, in a way, reciprocated with support to the Soviet Union after its invaded Afghanistan in December 1979. India was restrained in its public statements. For India, the Afghani- stan issue had been somewhat overshadowed by the virtual military alliance between Pakistan and the US.

With the coming to power of Mikhail Gorbachev in 1985, the Soviet foreign relations went through a sea change. The emphasis shifted to the need for mutually beneficial relations with the US and the West. His efforts to build a “Common European Home” undermined the importance of the developing world like India. This along with the Soviet/ Russian rapprochement with China led to a temporary downturn in Indo-Soviet relations.

Q 41. Highlight any four concerns in India’s foreign policy in the post-Cold War period.

Answer – Introduction

The end of cold war in 1989 has brought about significant changes in the international scene and hence new policy problems for the various states in the developing world including India.

The new situation is made of greater uncertainty and complexity. For India, the disintegration of the Soviet Union has meant uncertainty on several aspects viz. supply of weapons system, the supply of spare parts, diplomatic support on Kashmir and other politico-strategic issues in and outside the United Nations and as a counterweight to the US in South Asia.

During the last decade and a half international politics has undergone major changes. The cold war has ended, the world has become unipolar, a number of states have disintegrated, cold war military blocs have lost their significance, some such blocs have dissolved and new regional economic blocs are shaping up. Globalisation has given rise to a new set of problems such as terrorism, money laundering, the proliferation of weapons, global warming etc.

Concerns in India’s foreign policy:

These problems are not endemic to any region but affect all the countries to some extent or the other. This has forced many nation-states which were hitherto enemies to cooperate with each other to solve problems which are universal in nature.  In this changed international scenario it has become imperative for the UN to restructure and reform itself if it is to effectively respond to emerging challenges. Militancy in Kashmir has emerged as the foremost challenge to our foreign policy.

Pakistan and the Western countries blamed India for violating human rights and denial of rights to self-determination. Gradually, India brought the situation under control.

Because of the Kashmir dispute, India’s relations with Pakistan sharply deteriorated. India accused Pakistan of fanning trouble through cross border terrorism in Kashmir and other parts of our country.

India conducted nuclear weapon tests in 1998, followed by Pakistan’s tests. Pakistan resorted to further mischief by secretly sending its soldiers into Kargil in India and the World order to cut off the Kashmir valley from the rest of India.

India handled the challenge firmly and effectively. Now engaging Pakistan in a constructive and composite dialogue process remains a challenge to India’s foreign policy, because there is a great deal of push from the United States.

Spread of terrorism to corners beyond Kashmir is a challenge as well as the opportunity for our foreign policy nowadays. India is interested in forging an anti-terrorism coalition with as many countries as possible.

Keeping old friends and looking for new friendships is another challenge for our foreign policy after the cold war has ended. For example, India is interested in strengthening its relations without damaging its relations with Arab countries.

Similarly, India’s foreign policy is tackling new tasks like deepening economic and security cooperation with the United States, while at the same time opposing unilateral actions against Iraq and Yugoslavia.

Conclusion

India is realizing the growing importance of economic aspects of foreign policy. Hence, it is trying to establish a new basis for its relations with neighbouring countries in South Asia, China and the South East Asian counties.

Q 42. Describe any four powers and jurisdiction of High Courts.

Answer – Introduction

In the Indian Judicial system, The High Court is an intermediate body for disbursal of Justice to the grievances of Indian Citizens.

Powers and jurisdiction of High Courts

1. Original jurisdiction

• Original jurisdiction processes the power to control those cases that cannot be advanced in other courts other than high court.
• The original jurisdiction of the high court extends to the matters of admiralty, Will, matrimonial and contempt of court cases.

2. Appellate jurisdiction

• This processes the power to control the cases of appeal against the judgement provided by any district courts or any subordinate courts in the country.
• The cases include: civil cases and the criminal cases

3. Advisory jurisdiction

Any government department, legislature or governor may mention and send a specific case for consideration to the high court if it has certain special arrangements; this power of the high court to control such cases is referred to as advisory jurisdiction.

4. Judicial Review

• High court is authorised to review any judgment or order developed by any subordinate court, with a perception of reducing any kind of mistake or error that can crept in the judgement; it is referred as Judicial Review.
• This is done in cases of errors of law, wrong judgment and fragrant error in procedure.

Conclusion

The high courts are the highest courts of appellate jurisdiction in each state and union territory of India. High courts exercise their original civil and criminal jurisdiction only if the subordinate courts are not authorised by law. Judges of a high court are appointed by the president of India in consultation with the chief justice and the governor of the state under Article 217 of the constitution. The work of most high courts primarily consists of appeals from lower courts and writ petitions in terms of article 226 and 227 of the Indian polity and constitution.

Q 43. Explain any four shortcomings of Indian electoral system.

Answer – Shortcomings of Indian electoral system

1. Money Power

• The role of unaccounted money in elections has become a serious problem. The political parties collect funds from companies and business houses, and then use this money to influence the voter to vote in their favour. The business contributions are mostly in cash and are not unaccounted.
• Many other corrupt practices are also adopted during election such as bribing, rigging or voter’s intimidation, impersonation and providing transport and conveyance of voters to and for the polling stations. The reports of liquor being distributed in poor areas are frequent during election.

2. Muscle Power

Earlier the criminals used to support the candidates by intimidating the voter at a gunpoint to vote according to their direction. Now they themselves have come out openly by contesting the elections leading to criminalization of politics. As a result, violence during elections has also increased.

3. Caste and Religion

• Generally, the candidates are given tickets by the political parties on the consideration whether the candidate can muster the support of numerically larger castes and communities and possesses enough resources.
• Even the electorates vote on the caste and communal lines. Communal loyalties of the voters are used at the time of propaganda campaign.

4. Misuse of Government Machinery

• All the political parties do not have equal opportunity in respect of access to resources. The party in power is always in advantageous position then the opposition parties. There is widespread allegation that the party in power accomplishes misuse of government machinery.
• All these features lead to violence, booth capturing, rigging bogus voting, forcible removal of ballot papers, ballot boxes burning of vehicles, etc. which result into loss of public faith in elections.

 Electoral Reforms

Ways to rectify drawbacks

• A law should be made to regulate the internal affairs of political parties.
• It should be made mandatory for political parties to give a minimum of one-third of the party tickets to women candidates.
• There should be state funding of elections.
• Public participation should be increased.
• Vote casting should be made compulsory in each election.

Q 44. Evaluate the role and contribution of WHO (World Health Organisation) in saving the world from deadly diseases.

Answer – Introduction

The World Health Organisation (WHO) is a United Nations specialised body that investigates public health issues. It’s headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, and was founded on April 7, 1948. The WHO is led by its Director-General. The WHO now has 194-member nations. The only way to become a full member of the WHO is to approve the treaty known as the World Health Organisation’s Constitution. The goal of WHO, according to its constitution, is for “all people to achieve the best attainable level of health.”

The World Health Organisation’s (WHO) Contribution

• WHO give public health advice and guidance to other UN agency offices in the country. WHO also collaborates with other UN agencies, funders, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), and the corporate sector, in addition to governments.
• All nations, including the most developed, can take advantage of WHO’s worldwide health activities. For example, all countries gained from their contribution to WHO initiatives that resulted in the global elimination of some diseases and control of many others.

India and the World Health Organization

On January 12, 1948, India became a World Health Organisation (WHO) member. The regional office for South-East Asia is located in New Delhi.

Smallpox

Smallpox is a serious and often deadly viral infection. It’s contagious meaning it spreads from person to person and can cause permanent scarring. Sometimes, it causes disfigurement. Smallpox has affected humans for thousands of years but was wiped out worldwide by 1980 thanks to smallpox vaccines.

Polio

Polio, or poliomyelitis, is a disabling and life-threatening disease caused by the poliovirus. The virus spreads from person to person and can infect a person’s spinal cord, causing paralysis (can’t move parts of the body).

With financial and technical assistance from the World Bank, India initiated the fight against the illness in response to the WHO’s 1988 Global Polio Eradication Initiative. The Indian government, in collaboration with UNICEF, the World Health Organisation (WHO), the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Rotary International, and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, helped to raise almost universal awareness of the need to vaccinate all children under the age of five against polio in 2012. India was removed from the list of endemic nations in 2014 due to these initiatives. 

Conclusion

WHO works worldwide to promote health, keep the world safe, and serve the vulnerable. Our goal is to ensure that a billion more people have universal health coverage, to protect a billion more people from health emergencies, and provide a further billion people with better health and well-being.

Q 45. Explain any four features of the Indian Constitution.

Answer – Introduction

The Republic is governed in terms of the Constitution of India which was adopted by the Constituent Assembly on 26th November, 1949and came into force on 26th January, 1950.

Features of the Indian Constitution

(1) The largest Constitution: Sir Ivor Jennings has termed the Constitution of India as a largest and detailed Constitution of the world. Constitution originally consisted of 22 Parts, 395 Articles and 8 Schedules (Presently 12 Schedules).

(2) Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic Republic: The source of Constitution is the people of India. According to Preamble the people of India have adopted, enacted and given to themselves the Constitution. It declares India to be Sovereign, Socialist, Secular and Democratic Republic.  Words ‘Socialist’ and ‘Secular’ were added in Preamble by 42nd Constitutional Amendment, 1976.

(3) Parliamentary form of Government: India has Parliamentary form of government both at the Centre and the States. In this form of government, the President is the Constitutional Head of the State but the real executive power vests in Council of Ministers. They are responsible to the Legislature. India has followed British model in this respect.

(4) Blend of rigidity and flexibility: Rigidity or flexibility of the Constitution depends upon the amendment process. Written Constitutions are generally considered to be rigid. A rigid Constitution requires special method of amendment while a flexible Constitution can be amendment by ordinary process of legislation. Although the Indian Constitution is written, yet it has a unique mixture of flexibility and rigidity. Only few provisions of the Constitution require the consent of half of the States. Rest provisions can be amended by special majority of Parliament.

(8) Federal Constitution with centralizing tendency: This is one of the important features of the Constitution. It is a Federal Constitution but it acquires unitary tendency during the time of emergency.  During proclamation of emergency the distribution of power between Centre and State undergoes a radical change. The Parliament acquires the power to legislate on any subject mentioned in the State List. Executive and financial arrangements are also altered and Centre can direct State on these matters as well.

Conclusion

A Constitution has written laws accepted by people living together in a country. It generates trust and coordination between the government and the citizens.

Q 46. State the process of electing the speaker of the Lok Sabha and any six powers of the speaker.

Answer – Introduction

The Office of the Speaker in India is a living and dynamic institution which deals with the actual needs and problems of Parliament in the performance of its functions.

Election of Office of the Speaker:

Criteria: The Constitution of India requires the Speaker should be a member of the House.

• Although there are no specific qualifications prescribed for being elected the Speaker, an understanding of the Constitution and the laws of the country is considered a major asset for the holder of the Office of the Speaker.
• Usually, a member belonging to the ruling party is elected Speaker. The process has evolved over the years where the ruling party nominates its candidate after informal consultations with leaders of other parties and groups in the House.
• This convention ensures that once elected, the Speaker enjoys the respect of all sections of the House.

Voting: The Speaker (along with the Deputy Speaker) is elected from among the Lok Sabha members by a simple majority of members present and voting in the House.

Once a decision on the candidate is taken, his/her name is normally proposed by the Prime Minister or the Minister of Parliamentary Affairs.

Term of Office of the Speaker: The Speaker holds Office from the date of his/her election till immediately before the first meeting of the next Lok Sabha (for 5 years).

• The speaker once elected is eligible for re-election.
• Whenever the Lok Sabha is dissolved, the Speaker does not vacate his office and continues till the newly-elected Lok Sabha meets.

Powers and Functions of Lok Sabha speaker:

• The joint sitting of the parliament is called by the president of India and is presided over by the speaker of Lok Sabha and in their absence, it is done by the Deputy Speaker of Lok Sabha.
• The speaker presides over the meeting in the lower house, by ensuring discipline and decorum among the member
• The speaker guides in the Lok Sabha, deciding who will speak at what time, questions that are required to arise, and the order of preceding all the rules are to be maintained.
• The speaker uses the vote to resolve the deadlock; it is only possible when the two sides receive an equal number of votes by making the position impartial.
• In the absence of a quorum, the speaker decides to adjoin the house and suspend the meeting.
• The speaker decides the agenda that must be discussed in the meeting of the members of the parliament.

Conclusion

The whole discussion on the Lok Sabha speaker’s official role is to moderate debts, making rules on procedure, announcing the result of the vote, and many other factors. The speaker decides who will speak and has the power to discipline members and break the procedure of the chamber of house. The speaker is the head of the lok sabha secretary which function under the ultimate control and direction.

Q 47. Analyse the importance of Human Rights in India.

Answer – Introduction

Human rights are the basic rights and freedoms that belong to every person in the world, from birth until death. They apply regardless of where you are from, what you believe or how you choose to live your life.

importance of Human Rights

In Indian society, human rights have always played a vital role for several decades and draw upon religious, cultural, philosophical and legal developments. Human rights are a compilation of the basic rights that are common for all the human race.

• Universality and inalienability

Human rights are universal and inalienable. All people everywhere in the world are entitled to them. No one can voluntarily give them up. Nor can others take them away from him or her.

• Indivisibility

Human rights are indivisible. Whether civil, political, economic, social or cultural in nature, they are all inherent to the dignity of every human person. Consequently, they all have equal status as rights. There is no such thing as a ‘small’ right. There is no hierarchy of human rights.

• Inter-dependence and inter-relatedness

The realization of one right often depends, wholly or in part, upon the realization of others. For instance, the realization of the right to health may depend on the realization of the right to education or of the right to information.

• Equality and non-discrimination

All individuals are equal as human beings and by virtue of the inherent dignity of each human person. All human beings are entitled to their human rights without discrimination of any kind, such as race, color, sex, ethnicity, age, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, disability, property, birth or other status as explained by the human rights treaty bodies.

• Participation and inclusion

Every person and all peoples are entitled to active, free and meaningful participation in, contribution to, and enjoyment of civil, political, economic, social and cultural development, through which human rights and fundamental freedoms can be realized.

• Accountability and rule of law

States and other duty-bearers must comply with the legal norms and standards enshrined in human rights instruments. Where they fail to do so, aggrieved rights-holders are entitled to institute proceedings for appropriate redress before a competent court or other adjudicator, in accordance with the rules and procedures provided by law.

Conclusion

Human rights are the basic requirements of behaviour in relation to certain difficulties that are generally acknowledged as pertinent. If you really are born human, the world has developed rules of morality that you must abide by These norms are described as human basic rights.

Q 48. Explain any four environmental problems with examples.

Answer – Introduction

Environmental issues are the harmful effects of human activities on the environment. These include pollution, overpopulation, waste disposal, climate change, global warming, the greenhouse effect, etc. Various environment protection programs are being practiced at the individual, organizational and government levels with the aim of establishing a balance between man and the environment.

Environmental problems:

1. Climate Change

Climate change is a great concern in today’s scenario. This problem has surfaced in the last few decades. Greenhouse gases are the major cause of climate change. Environmental changes have several destructive impacts such as the melting of glaciers, change in seasons, epidemics, etc.

2. Global Warming

The burning of fossil fuels, emissions from automobiles and chlorofluorocarbons add to the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. This has led to an increase in the earth’s temperature causing environmental changes. This increase in temperature across the globe is known as global warming.

3. Ozone Layer Depletion

The ozone layer is a layer of concentrated ozone gas. It protects us from the sun’s harmful ultraviolet rays. This very important layer is being destroyed by CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons), which are used in industries and everyday life (e.g. aerosol cans).

The chlorine in these compounds destroys the ozone layer. The hole in the ozone layer leaves humans and wildlife exposed to harmful UV rays resulting in several skin diseases including cancer.

4. Water Pollution

The introduction of harmful substances into rivers, oceans, lakes and ponds, which changes the physical, chemical or biological condition of the water is called water pollution. The polluted water lacks oxygen and therefore the organisms die.

Water is the main source of life and therefore it is our prime duty to prevent it from any kind of pollution.

5. Air Pollution

Air pollution is the result of emissions from industries, automobiles, and the increasing use of fossil fuels. The gaseous emissions have added to an increase in the temperature of the earth. Not only this, but it had also increased the risk of diseases among individuals.

6. Overpopulation

The earth’s population is increasing drastically. It is estimated to be more than seven billion. The increasing population has led to a shortage of resources. If this continues, it will be very difficult to sustain such a huge population. The other environmental issues including pollution, waste management, deforestation, climate change and global warming are all associated with overpopulation.

Conclusion

Environmental issues are a warning of the upcoming disaster. If these issues are not controlled, there will soon be no life on earth.

Q 49. Describe any eight powers of the Governor of State.

Answer – Introduction

Governor: is a nominal executive head of the state. He forms an important part of the state executive where he acts as the chief executive head. Central Government nominates the governor for each state.

The Indian President appoints Governor for each state by warrant under his hand and seal. Central Government is responsible to nominate the governor for each state.

Appointment of the Governor

• Governor for a state is neither directly elected by the people nor in-directly by the state or union executives
• The President appoints the Governor for any state by using his executive power by issuing a warrant for an appointment in his name
• The state governor is nominated by the centre and acts as an agent of the centre in the state

Qualification for Governor

The constitution of India has given only two qualification conditions for the appointment of the Governor; the two conditions are as follows:

• The individual to be appointed as Governor should be a citizen of India
• The individual to be appointed to the office of Governor should have completed the age of at least 35 years

Powers of the Governor of State

Executive Powers:

1. Every executive action that the state government takes, is to be taken in his name.
2. How an order that has been taken up his name is to be authenticated, the rules for the same can be specified by the Governor.

Legislative Powers:

3. It’s in his power to prorogue the state legislature and dissolve the state legislative assemblies
4. He addresses the state legislature at the first session of every year

Financial Powers:

5. He looks over the state budget being laid in the state legislature
6. His recommendation is a prerequisite for the introduction of a money bill in the state legislature

Judicial Powers:

7. He has the following pardoning powers against punishment:

• Pardon
• Reprieve
• Respite
• Remit
• Commute

8. President consults the Governor while appointing judges of High Court.

Conclusion

The Governor of a state isn’t just a figurehead. He can practice a few powers in his prudence, and free of the suggestions made by the state Chief minister. Governor is anything but a pointless height. The Governor goes about as the connection between the Union and the state.

Q 50. Explain the legislative and the executive functions of the Parliament of India.

Answer –Introduction

Parliament is the supreme legislative body of India. The Indian Parliament comprises of the President and the two Houses – Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and Lok Sabha (House of the People). The President has the power to summon and prorogue either House of Parliament or to dissolve Lok Sabha. The Constitution of India came into force on January 26, 1950. The first general elections under the new Constitution were held during the year 1951-52 and the first elected Parliament came into existence in April, 1952.

legislative and the executive functions:

In the form of parliamentary government, the executive has a duty toward the legislator. This is why the Parliament exercises authority over the executive via various actions.

Vote of no-confidence: The Parliament is able to eliminate any member of the Cabinet (executive) from authority. It may also refuse a budget plan or any other bill introduced through the Cabinet. A vote of no-confidence can be used to detach a government from office.

Members of Parliament: can inquire of the ministers regarding their omissions and commissions. Any infractions by the government may be exposed by the Parliament.

Adjournment Motion: Only permitted within the Lok Sabha, the chief goal of the motion is to alert the Parliament to any current topic of immediate public concern. It is regarded as an unusual instrument in the Parliamentary process since the normal functioning of the Parliament is in danger.

Censure Motion: A motion to censure is made by the members of the opposition parties of the House to oppose any government policy strongly. It is only possible to move within the Lok Sabha. After a motion to censure is approved, the government must get support from the House. Contrary to the motion of no confidence, however, it is not necessary for the Council of Ministers need not be sacked if the motion is approved.

Cut Motion: The cut motion is used to stop any requirement in the budget bill drafted by the federal government.

Legislative powers and duties:

The principal function of the Parliament is to make laws. Lok Sabha plays an important role in this. It is able to approve bills pertaining to legislation on the Union and Concurrent list. A bill is not able to be implemented into law until it is approved by Parliament.

Conclusion

The Indian parliament in India also includes the executive. There are many ways by which the legislature exerts power over the executive. This can be done by imposing zero-hours questions, question hours motions, adjournment motions, calling attention motions, etc.